[187] The failure of Tet in sparking a popular uprising caused a shift in Hanoi's war strategy, and the Gip-Chinh "Northern-First" faction regained control over military affairs from the L Dun-Hong Vn Thi "Southern-First" faction. [258]:57 One civilian doctor, Eleanor Ardel Vietti, who was captured by Viet Cong on 30 May 1962, in Bun Ma Thut, remains the only American woman unaccounted for from the Vietnam War. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences. [97]:238 Dim staffed his government's key posts mostly with northern and central Catholics. [252] South Korean forces are also accused of perpetrating other massacres, namely: Bnh Ha massacre, Binh Tai Massacre and H My massacre. [34]:263 The chemicals used continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain. Other aerial campaigns, such as Operation Barrel Roll, targeted different parts of the Viet Cong and PAVN infrastructure. It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from the Viet Cong. [220][221][222]:9596 Minh was then escorted to Radio Saigon to announce the surrender declaration (spontaneously written by Tung). During that year's presidential campaign, Americans were deeply divided by the deteriorating military and political situation in Vietnam. The National Security Agency ran a crash program to provide U.S. forces with a family of security equipment, codenamed NESTOR, fielding 17,000 units initially; eventually 30,000 units were produced. [85]:377379[40]:88 The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 convinced many Washington policymakers that the war in Indochina was an example of communist expansionism directed by the Soviet Union. Learn why a country that had been barely known to most Americans came to define an era. Dim's elder brother Ng nh Thc was the Archbishop of Hu and aggressively blurred the separation between church and state. [282], After the Tet Offensive, many PAVN units incorporated light tanks such as the Type 62, Type 59 tank., BTR-60, Type 60 artillery, amphibious tanks (such as the PT-76) and integrated into new war doctrines as a mobile combined-arms force. In Vietnam, the diary has often been compared to The Diary of Anne Frank, and both are used in literary education. Who was the US president during the Vietnam War until 1963? In addition to the Catholics flowing south, over 130,000 "Revolutionary Regroupees" went to the north for "regroupment", expecting to return to the south within two years. [16] By early 1959, however, Dim had come to regard the (increasingly frequent) violence as an organized campaign and implemented Law 10/59, which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation. [211][40]:576582, Vietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a massive conventional PAVN invasion of South Vietnam. "Vietnam War" is the most commonly used name in English. [358]:374, Michael Allen in Until The Last Man Comes Home also accuses Nixon of myth making, by exploiting the plight of the League of Wives of American Prisoners in Vietnam and the National League of Families of American Prisoners and Missing in Southeast Asia to allow the government to appear caring as the war was increasingly considered lost. [128] The Kennedy administration sought to refocus U.S. efforts on pacification- which in this case was defined as countering the growing threat of insurgency-[129][130] and "winning over the hearts and minds" of the population. Lunch, W. & Sperlich, P. (1979). [328]:4447 An estimated 125,000 Americans left for Canada to avoid the Vietnam draft,[329] and approximately 50,000 American servicemen deserted. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson had not been heavily involved with policy toward Vietnam;[135][A 10] however, upon becoming president, Johnson immediately focused on the war. Dim, however, viewed the election as a test of authority. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out. [165]:196205 Large-scale offensives were rolled back in favour of small-unit and sapper attacks as well as targeting the pacification and Vietnamization strategy. [313], Failure of U.S. goals in the war is often placed at different institutions and levels. The Vietnam War came to dominate Nixon's presidency. [245] The Phoenix Program, coordinated by the CIA and involving US and South Vietnamese security forces, was aimed at destroying the political infrastructure of the Viet Cong. Myths play a central role in the historiography of the Vietnam War, and have become a part of the culture of the United States. His presidency was short but it spanned a critical period, both in Vietnam and the formulation of US policy. [37][38] The Vietnamese government released its estimate of war deaths for the more lengthy period of 1955 to 1975. Once in office, his administration sought to achieve "peace with honor." The top-secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions on the part of the U.S. government. The Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the Truman and Eisenhower administrations. [24]:xli. The ethnic minority peoples of South Vietnam, like the Montagnards (Degar) in the Central Highlands, the Hindu and Muslim Cham, and the Buddhist Khmer Krom, were actively recruited in the war. Only 16 months later, the Cuban Missile Crisis (1628 October 1962) played out on television worldwide. However, Thieu outmanoeuvred and sidelined Ky by filling the ranks with generals from his faction. Phase 1. [217][218], By the end of April, the ARVN had collapsed on all fronts except in the Mekong Delta. FULRO fought against both the South Vietnamese and the Viet Cong, later proceeding to fight against the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam after the fall of South Vietnam. Included among their ranks were "about 90 percent" of Laos's "intellectuals, technicians, and officials. In March 1969 Nixon launched a massive secret bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border. [40] Likewise, Ho Chi Minh and other communist officials always won at least 99% of the vote in North Vietnamese "elections". [40]:99100. In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. [281] In the period up to the conventional phase in 1970, the Viet Cong and PAVN were primarily limited to 81mm mortars, recoilless rifles, and small arms and had significantly lighter equipment and firepower in comparison with the US arsenal. [314] Others point to a failure of U.S. military doctrine. American support of Dim in refusing elections was seen as thwarting the democracy America claimed to support. One documented event was the Phong Nh and Phong Nht massacre where the 2nd Marine Brigade reportedly killed between 69 and 79 civilians on 12 February 1968 in Phong Nh and Phong Nht village, in Bn District, Qung Nam Province. The Viet Minh had confiscated large private landholdings, reduced rents and debts, and leased communal lands, mostly to poorer peasants. It was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war, and the U.S. raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command (SAC) forces to DEFCON 2. [85]:369. [85]:19 John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. senator, said in a speech to the American Friends of Vietnam: "Burma, Thailand, India, Japan, the Philippines and obviously Laos and Cambodia are among those whose security would be threatened if the Red Tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam."[106]. After North Vietnamese torpedo boats attacked two U.S. destroyers on Aug. 5, 1964 in the Gulf of Tonkin,. Although Kennedy stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. [301], The U.S. used its security council veto to block Vietnam's recognition by the United Nations three times, an obstacle to the country receiving international aid. Unlike other wars, there was no declaration of the Vietnam War. [358]:376377, On 25 May 2012, President Barack Obama issued a proclamation of the commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War. [40]:486 Refusal to send more U.S. troops to Vietnam was also seen as Johnson's admission that the war was lost. American Huey helicopters insert South Vietnamese ARVN troops, 1970. "[100]:575 An estimated 200,000 to 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 90% of herbicide use was directed at forest defoliation. By 1968, the United States had 548,000 troops in Vietnam and had already lost 30,000 Americans there. [97]:672674 The PAVN/VC resumed offensive operations when the dry season began in 1973, and by January 1974 had recaptured territory it lost during the previous dry season. [271] Many mixed-blood Amerasian children were left behind when their American fathers returned to the United States after their tour of duty in South Vietnam; 26,000 of them were permitted to immigrate to the United States in the 1980s and 1990s. The inept performance of the ARVN was exemplified by failed actions such as the Battle of p Bc on 2 January 1963, in which a small band of Viet Cong won a battle against a much larger and better-equipped South Vietnamese force, many of whose officers seemed reluctant even to engage in combat. [152] With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. What is President Eisenhower known for? [24] Many songwriters and musicians supported the anti-war movement, including Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Peggy Seeger, Ewan MacColl, Barbara Dane, The Critics Group, Phil Ochs, John Lennon, John Fogerty, Nina Simone, Neil Young, Tom Paxton, Jimmy Cliff and Arlo Guthrie. This decision, made after "inadequate testing", proved that "the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration. Her diaries were later published in Vietnam as ng Thy Trm's Diary (Last Night I Dreamed of Peace), where it became a best-seller and was later made into a film Don't Burn (ng t). Soviet crews fired Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles at U.S. aircraft in 1965. [124] Their weapons were principally of Chinese[280] or Soviet manufacture. [40]:3335, Military advisors from China began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950. [16] The North Vietnamese government claimed that, by November 1957, over 65,000 individuals were imprisoned and 2,148 were killed in the process. [317], Between 1953 and 1975, the United States was estimated to have spent $168billion on the war (equivalent to $1.47 trillion in 2021). [97]:676 Gip, the North Vietnamese defence minister, was reluctant to approve of Tr's plan since a larger offensive might provoke U.S. reaction and interfere with the big push planned for 1976. [97]:556 Most cities were recaptured within weeks, except the former imperial capital of Hu in which PAVN/Viet Cong troops captured most of the city and citadel except the headquarters of the 1st Division and held on in the fighting for 26 days. The B-52s literally dropped their payloads in the lake." He instituted the death penalty against any activity deemed communist in August 1956. At the same time, Hanoi realized it could not achieve a "total victory" and employed a strategy known as "talking while fighting, fighting while talking", in which military offensives would occur concurrently with negotiations. While Hanoi's support for the Viet Cong played a role, South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis. "[85]:367, Vietnam was a major political issue during the United States presidential election in 1968. The United States had just sent its first combat. "[119][120], Kennedy's policy toward South Vietnam assumed that Dim and his forces had to ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. The American Army's decline was readily apparent in this final stage. [115]:26 About 500 of the "regroupees" of 1954 were sent south on the trail during its first year of operation. China accepted 250,000 people. [155] The change in U.S. policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong in a contest of attrition and morale. "[85]:368 The inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing also illustrated another U.S. miscalculation, and demonstrated the limitations of U.S. military abilities in achieving political goals. In 1964, South Vietnam began conducting a series of attacks and missions along the North Vietnamese coasts, backed by the United States. [151] The Marines' initial assignment was the defense of Da Nang Air Base. An entire American army was sacrificed on the battlefield of Vietnam. [142]:78 The resolution granted the president power "to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression" and Johnson would rely on this as giving him authority to expand the war. [166], The Tet Offensive began on 30 January 1968, as over 100 cities were attacked by over 85,000 VC/PAVN troops, including assaults on key military installations, headquarters, and government buildings and offices, including the U.S. Embassy in Saigon. Chloro-dioxins, which are inevitably formed as a byproduct of Agent Orange synthesis, are highly teratogenic, and there is substantial evidence that the birth defects carry on for three generations or more. The Viet Cong was now tasked with destroying the ARVN and capturing and holding areas; however, the Viet Cong was not yet strong enough to assault major towns and cities. On 22 March, the PAVN opened the siege of Hu. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. [133] The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participated in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group (MAC-V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes. [40]:515[182], U.S. president Richard Nixon began troop withdrawals in 1969. [325] Vietnam veterans suffered from PTSD in unprecedented numbers, as many as 15.2% of Vietnam veterans, because the U.S. military had routinely provided heavy psychoactive drugs, including amphetamines, to American servicemen, which left them unable to process adequately their traumas at the time. [85]:328, U.S. military advisors were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed forces. . President Richard M. Nixon assumed responsibility for the Vietnam War as he swore the oath of office on January 20, 1969. [A 8] The end of the Vietnam War would precipitate the Vietnamese boat people and the larger Indochina refugee crisis, which saw millions of refugees leave Indochina, an estimated 250,000 of whom perished at sea. Kennedy advisors Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. [200]:331[160]:407 In 1969, field-performance of the U.S. 500 thousand tons were dropped on Cambodia, 1million tons were dropped on North Vietnam, and 4million tons were dropped on South Vietnam. In 1945, France began a military campaign to suppress the rebellion, inaugurating thirty years of bitter conflict in Vietnam. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as PAVN tanks breached defenses near Saigon. [154] Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. The CIA contacted generals planning to remove Dim and told them that the United States would not oppose such a move nor punish the generals by cutting off aid. "[297] Such variations may be because "Some estimates may include not only detainees but also people sent from the cities to the countryside." Poor leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in weakening the ARVN. 2144, Combat Area Casualty File, November 1993. Further information on the final North Vietnamese offensive: Ousting and assassination of Ng nh Dim, Gulf of Tonkin and Johnson's escalation, 19631969, ARVN taking the lead and U.S. ground-force withdrawal, Easter Offensive and Paris Peace Accords, 1972, United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO). Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon oversaw the conflict, which ratcheted up in intensity as the years passed by. Having transferred power to Trn Vn Hng on 21 April, he left for Taiwan on 25 April. [96] The northern, mainly Catholic refugees gave the later Ng nh Dim regime a strong anti-communist constituency. [62] These do not include the estimated 300,000500,000 PAVN/VC missing in action. He foresaw that if the election was held in 1956 possibly eighty percent of Vietnamese population would have voted for Ho Chi Minh 2 and Vietnam would certainly fall to the communists. It was hoped these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. According to the government of Laos, unexploded ordnance has killed or injured over 20,000 Laotians since the end of the war and currently 50 people are killed or maimed every year. [34]:270279, Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Hu[255] during the Tet Offensive and the killing of 252 civilians during the k Sn massacre. "[97]:546 The American public and media began to turn against Johnson as the three offensives contradicted claims of progress made by the Johnson administration and the military. Some, like in the WAFC, served in combat with other soldiers. [173] The U.S. claimed 17,000 of the PAVN and Viet Cong had been killed and 15,000 wounded. [72] U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. Thieu was also accused of murdering Ky loyalists through contrived military accidents. [40]:649663 Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement or else face retaliatory military action from the U.S.[212], On 15 January 1973, all U.S. combat activities were suspended. [209] In AprilMay 1970, North Vietnam invaded Cambodia at the request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with deputy leader Nuon Chea. US casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969 casualties after being relegated to less active combat. As the media's coverage of the war and that of the Pentagon diverged, a so-called credibility gap developed. [208] Lon Nol began rounding up Vietnamese civilians in Cambodia into internment camps and massacring them, provoking harsh reactions from both the North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese governments. [288]:4,10, The U.S. dropped over 7million tons of bombs on Indochina during the war, more than triple the 2.1million tons of bombs the U.S. dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II and more than ten times the amount dropped by the U.S. during the Korean War. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh and Da Lat. [199] A total of 900 fragging and suspected fragging incidents were investigated, most occurring between 1969 and 1971. [75]:89, In October 1956, Dim launched a land reform program limiting the size of rice farms per owner. Non-combat deaths account for 30 to 40% of these figures. [45]:275 Other estimates point to higher figures of 313,000 casualties. [67][68] The war is widely considered to be a Cold War-era proxy war. [203] Between 1969 and 1971 the Viet Cong and some PAVN units had reverted to small unit tactics typical of 1967 and prior instead of nationwide grand offensives. [97]:468. He argued that with two months of good weather remaining until the onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible to not take advantage of the situation. [148] Nonetheless, it is possible to specify certain groups who led the anti-war movement at its peak in the late 1960s and the reasons why. [275] A number of prominent Western journalists were also involved in covering the war, with Dickey Chapelle being among the first as well as the first American female reporter killed in a war. [110] There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords, leading to "wildcat" activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists. Eisenhower was born in Texas, raised in Kansas then educated at the West Point military academy, graduating in 1915. He helped found the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930 and the League for the Independence of Vietnam, or Viet Minh, in 1941. There had also been reports of Catholic paramilitaries demolishing Buddhist pagodas throughout Dim's rule. [34]:450453, According to figures released by the Vietnamese government there were 849,018 confirmed military deaths on the PAVN/VC side during the war. It was additionally aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese. However, "their methodology was reviewed and criticized as invalid by authors. [198] Unit cohesion began to dissipate and focused on minimising contact with Viet Cong and PAVN. Thus, the total for 1954 to 1975 is 81,000, from a range of between 57,000 and 284,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam. [24], President Thiu, a former general, was fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat, which soon turned into a bloody rout. In 1968, the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group (VWCWG) was established by the Pentagon task force set up in the wake of the My Lai Massacre, to attempt to ascertain the veracity of emerging claims of war crimes by U.S. armed forces in Vietnam, during the Vietnam War period. Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, some of the most noteworthy examples being Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter (1978), Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979), Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986) based on his service in the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War, Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987). The conflict also spilled over into neighboring states, exacerbating the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War, which ended with all three countries becoming communist states by 1975. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail. The north was supported by the Soviet Union, China,[21] and other communist states, while the south was supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies. High-profile opposition to the Vietnam War increasingly turned to mass protests in an effort to shift U.S. public opinion. [97]:340 Lodge, frustrated by the end of the year, cabled home about Minh: "Will he be strong enough to get on top of things?" The AC-130 was a heavily armed ground-attack aircraft variant of the C-130 Hercules transport plane, while the Huey is a military helicopter powered by a single, turboshaft engine; approximately 7,000 UH-1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam. [40]:479 During one battle, Peter Arnett reported an infantry commander saying of the Battle of Bn Tre (laid to rubble by U.S. attacks) that "it became necessary to destroy the village in order to save it. Booming as Memories of Vietnam Fade", "General Won't Punish G.I. During the withdrawal the PAVN counterattack had forced a panicked rout. 812. The relationship between Vietnam and Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) escalated right after the end of the war. Between 1969 and 1971 the U.S. Army recorded more than 900 attacks by troops on their own officers and NCOs with 99 killed. The ARVN forces were led by Dim's most trusted general, Hunh Vn Cao, commander of the IV Corps. Of the war crimes reported to military authorities, sworn statements by witnesses and status reports indicated that 320 incidents had a factual basis. By the time South Vietnam joined the talks, Richard M. Nixon had been elected president. During Dim's presidency, his sister-in-law Madame Nhu was the commander of the WAFC. In 1968, North Vietnamese forces launched the Tet Offensive; though it was a military defeat for them, it became a political victory, as it caused U.S. domestic support for the war to fade. defenders. The defeat marked the end of French military involvement in Indochina. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent any redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phm Vn ng,[103]:134 who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions". Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. [145] Between March 1965 and November 1968, Rolling Thunder deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs. [243]:12, The military forces of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,256 killed between 1960 and 1974 and additional deaths from 1954 to 1959 and in 1975. Which president started Vietnam War? [195] ROTC enrollment decreased from 191,749 in 1966 to 72,459 by 1971,[196] and reached an all-time low of 33,220 in 1974,[197] depriving U.S. forces of much-needed military leadership. The United States Department of State wanted to encourage a coup, while the Defense Department favored Dim. [201] While U.S. forces were redeployed, the ARVN took over combat operations throughout the country, with casualties double US casualties in 1969, and more than triple US ones in 1970. [144] The bombing campaign, which ultimately lasted three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the Viet Cong by threatening to destroy North Vietnamese air defenses and industrial infrastructure. In the final weeks of his life, Kennedy wrestled with the need to decide the future of the United States' commitment in Vietnam. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes that "Dim represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism. 89. [40]:702704, On 7 April, three PAVN divisions attacked Xun Lc, 40 miles (64km) east of Saigon. "[316], Hanoi had persistently sought unification of the country since the Geneva Accords, and the effects of U.S. bombings had negligible impact on the goals of the North Vietnamese government. [97]:644645 Nixon and Thieu had sought to use this event to show-case victory simply by capturing Tchepone, and it was spun off as an "operational success". [358]:376 Allen's analysis ties the position of potential missing or prisoner Americans into post-war politics and recent presidential elections, including the Swift boat controversy in US electoral politics. He expected that the American people would give him a year to end U.S. involvement in the war, and he expected to succeed during that . In February 1955, President Eisenhower sent the first American military advisors to Vietnam to help build up Diem's army. [259][260][261], Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. Thiu had halted the general advance, leaving armoured divisions able to surround them. [335][336], Agent Orange and other similar chemical substances used by the U.S. have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries in the intervening years, including among the US Air Force crews that handled them. [334] They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide weaponry and encampments under the foliage, and to deprive them of food. [234][40]:364371 From July 1965 to the end of 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by some 6,500 officers and generals, as well as more than 4,500 soldiers and sergeants of the Soviet Armed Forces, amounting to roughly 11,000 military personnel. [40]:514 After news reports of American military abuses, such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. Stanley Karnow noted that "the main PX [Post Exchange], located in the Saigon suburb of Cholon, was only slightly smaller than the New York Bloomingdale's"[97]:453, Washington encouraged its SEATO allies to contribute troops. Early in 1963, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam. Indeed, there was no longer a 'regime' in the sense of a relatively stable political alliance and functioning bureaucracy. The first deployment of 3,500 in March 1965 was increased to nearly 200,000 by December. [116] The first arms delivery via the trail was completed in August 1959. [339] In 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam. U.S. public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment. With the US losing around 300 soldiers a week in Vietnam, and the enemy showing no signs of weakening, Nixon concluded that the war could not be won. [40]:227, The National Security Council recommended a three-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. They relied on ambushes, superior stealth, planning, marksmanship, and small-unit tactics to face the disproportionate US technological advantage.
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